when was the bar kokhba revolt

), Proceedings of the Judaean Documents Workshop held in Bar Ilan University, 3–5 June 1998 (forthcoming). Bar Kokhba/Kokhva, Bar Cochba, Bar-Kokheba, Bar-Cocheba (aramäisch בר־כוכבא) ... Menahem Mor: The Second Jewish Revolt. Hadrian changed the country’s name from Judea to Syria Palestina. Werner Eck: Rom herausfordern. Published on 06.05.2015. It was marked as well by strong religious passions, with many apparently believing that Bar Kochba was the promised messiah who would lead the Jewish people to final victory against their enemies. According to the Christian church historian Eusebius (c.260-c.340), Simon claimed to be a luminary who had come down to the Jews from heaven (History of the church 4.6.2). Even the causes of the Bar Kochba revolt remain unclear. Simon ben Kosevah, or Cosibah, known to posterity as Bar Kokhba, was a Jewish military leader who led the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE. Jews were hiding in caves in order to be able to perform the mitzvahs.When discovered by Roman soldiers, they resisted, in some cases successfully. While by no means comprehensive, these sources do provide several important details. The Romans plowed Jerusalem with a yoke of oxen. Ancient History Encyclopedia Foundation is a non-profit organization. Even his name remains something of a mystery. "The siege lasted a long time before the rebels were driven to final destruction by famine and thirst and the instigator of their madness paid the penalty he deserved," Eusebius writes (4:6.3). Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1969. In fact, Jesus never wanted the Gentiles to become separated from their Hebrew roots. Another rabbi then drily replies, "Grass will be growing from your cheeks and the son of David will still not have come" (Midrash Rabba Eicha 2:2.4). Coin of Bar Kochba, with the temple and a Messianic star. Weitere Ideen zu See genezareth, Alter krieger, Römisches heer. However, Rabbi Akiva made the sad error of declaring Bar Kochba to be the Jewish Messiah. Jewish leaders carefully planned the second revolt to avoid the numerous mistakes that had plagued the first Great Jewish Revolt sixty years earlier. Capitolina on the ruins of Jerusalem and the Bar Kokhba revolt. Dio writes: 50 of their most important outposts and 985 of their most famous villages were razed to the ground. “Immediately after the Bar-Kokhba revolt, the Romans decided to abolish the province of Judea and to obliterate any mention of its name,” Yasur-Landau and Gambash explain. Bar Kochba im Kampf gegen das Imperium Romanum. Hadrian brought an extra army legion, the “Sixth Ferrata,” into Judea to deal with the terrorism. This may have been something of a moot point, however, as the majority of the Jewish population had either been killed, died of disease or starvation, or been sold into slavery. 580,000 men were slain in the various raids and battles, and the number of those that perished by famine, disease, and fire was past finding out. The Jews collected armaments, dug extensive tunnel systems for guerrilla warfare, and united politically and militarily under a single leader, as opposed to the extensive infighting that marked the first revolt. Showing a capacity for careful strategy, they waited until Hadrian had finished his tour of the eastern provinces before rising up and appear to have caught the Romans entirely by surprise. Kerstein, Benjamin. The Bar Kokhba War AD 132–135: The last Jewish revolt against Imperial... Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike. [...] nearly the whole of Judea was made desolate. Bar Kochba Coinby Nick Thompson (CC BY-NC-SA). Documents discovered in the modern era Rabbi Akiva. The Bar Kokhba revolt (Hebrew: מֶרֶד בַּר כּוֹכְבָא ‎; Mered Bar Kokhba) was a rebellion of the Jews of the Roman province of Judea, led by Simon bar Kokhba, against the Roman Empire.Fought circa 132–136 CE, [5] it was the last of three major Jewish–Roman wars, so it is also known as The Third Jewish–Roman War or The Third Jewish Revolt. Volume 65, December 2016, Issue 4, pp 497-519 Original language: English Beitrag About this journal 2) See: Midrash, Breishit Rabbah 64:10 3) See: Talmud - Tanit 4:5. In 118 A.D., Hadrian became the new Emperor of Rome, and had a seemingly dramatic change of heart toward the Jews. For only $5 per month you can become a member and support our mission to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide. Bar-Kokhba united his army in Judea and led the Jews in battle. He executed two more senators for their alleged plots against him, and this provoked further resentment. The Bar Kochba revolt: A disaster celebrated by Zionists on Lag Ba'Omer; The letters had been signed by the legendary Jewish warrior Shimon Bar Kochba, leader of a devastating second-century revolt against Rome, and had been found high up in a cave overlooking the Nahal Hever canyon, west of … (ed. In effect, the Jews were now a stateless people and would remain so until 1948 CE. He is referred to at certain points as something of a legendary hero, at one point supposedly deflecting a ballista with his leg. The extent to which the Jews succeeded in establishing control over the province is not clear, though they must have commanded extensive territory at the height of the revolt. Written by Phil Hopersberger Published in . Added to this would have been the Jews’ desire to be readmitted to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple, as well as the demographic pressure of an increasing number of Greek and Roman colonists. Bar Kochba Jewish outrage at his actions led to one of the single greatest revolts of the Roman Era. The Jewish sources are far more explicit, with tales of Roman soldiers smashing babies against rocks and the mass slaughter of civilians. Reverse: A lulav, the text reads: "to the freedom of Jerusalem". This is … Balylonian Talmud, Gittin 57a-58a - Livius, Midrash Rabbah Lamentations 2.2.4 - Livius, Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilizations. Simon bar Kokhba (Hebrew: שמעון בר כוכבא ‎) (died CE 135) was the Jewish leader of what is known as the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE, establishing an independent Jewish state which he ruled for three years as Nasi ("Prince"). In 115‑117 C.E., while Trajan was occupied in Mesopotamia, Jews throughout the Diaspora rose up against their non‑Jewish neighbors in a violent confrontation. For the first time, the Jews presented a united front against Roman forces and fought underneath a single charismatic leader, the eponymous Simon Bar Kochba (also given as Shimon Bar-Cochba, Bar Kokhba, Ben-Cozba, Cosiba or Coziba). For the first time, the Jews presented a united … , “ The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View,” Journal of Roman Studies 89 (1999). According to the Christian church historian Eusebius (c.260-c.340), Simon claimed to be a luminary who had come down to the Jews from heaven (History of the church 4.6.2). Simon ben Kosevah, known to posterity as Bar Kokhba, was a Jewish military leader who led the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE. In 135 C.E., Hadrian’s army besieged Bethar and on the 9th of Av, the Jewish fast day commemorating the destruction of the first and second Holy Temples, the walls of Bethar fell. The Bar Kochba Revolt (132–136 CE) was the third and final war between the Jewish people and the Roman Empire. Eusebius quotes Ariston of Pella stating, Thus when the city came to be bereft of the nation of the Jews, and its ancient inhabitants had completely perished, it was colonized by foreigners, and the Roman city which afterwards arose changed its name, and in honor of the reigning emperor Aelius Hadrian was called Aelia. Bar Kokhba became the leader of this Second Jewish Revolt; although at first successful, his forces proved no match against the methodical and ruthless tactics of the Roman general Julius Severus. Hadrian Bust, Vatican Museumsby Mark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA). The Bar Kokhba War, 132-136 CE. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms. What followed the fall of Beitar was in many ways as horrendous as the war itself. Everyone is aware of the Dead Sea Scrolls, but few realise that... Hadrian was Roman emperor from 117 to 138 CE and he is known as... Inscribed lead weight, 803.6 grams used to ensure fair dealing... Silver and bronze coins were struck by the Bar Kokhba administration... Khirbat el-yahud (ancient Beitar) near Batir. This was led by Simeon Bar-Kokhba, (Son of a Star) a charismatic leader, who many regarded as the Messiah, foretold in the Book of Numbers in the Old Testament . In another, he ignores rabbinical advice on mutilating his soldiers, thus defying the will of God and bringing about his army’s downfall. Bar Kochba silver Shekel/tetradrachm. Last modified August 30, 2018. 10.04.2018 . The Jewish sources are not per se historical and, while also scanty, are found throughout the rabbinical literature of the period and after, in particular, in the Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmuds. (Jerome, Commentary on Daniel, Chapter 9). Published on 06.05.2015. The name Bar Kokhba, "Son of a Star," was given to him apparently in accordance with Num. When he left in 132, the Jews began their rebellion on a large scale. The Bar Kokhba revolt (132 – 135 CE) (_he. He allowed them to return to Jerusalem and granted permission for the rebuilding of their Holy Temple. The other two were the Kitios War (115-117) and the First Jewish War (66-70 AD). Bar Kokhba, Jewish leader who led a bitter but unsuccessful revolt (132–135 ce) against Roman dominion in Judaea. 30.03.2016 - Entdecke die Pinnwand „The Bar Kokhba Revolt“ von Feminine. The Bar-Kokhba Revolt: The Greek Point of View . Outlawing circumcision, combined with desecrating the holiest spot for Jews, pushed the boiling pot over into the Second Jewish Revolt in 132 A.D. (some call it the Third Jewish Revolt, when counting the Kitos War in 115-117 A.D.) Nonetheless, Bar Kochba has remained alive in historical memory. Benjamin Kerstein has studied Jewish history, ancient, medieval, and modern for ten years. A coin from the period refers to herut yerushalayim, or "the freedom of Jerusalem," but this may have been figurative. Six days passed before the Romans allowed the Jews to bury their dead. The Romans, however, regrouped and adopted a scorched-earth strategy that ultimately extirpated the rebels and laid waste to the country. Before long pitched battles were being fought in Egypt. Bar Kochba - (Aramaic - "Son of a Star;' pronounced Bahr' Kokhbah' ) Leader of the Jewish revolt in 132 AD against the Roman empire, whose real name may have been Shimon Bar Kosibah. Please support Ancient History Encyclopedia Foundation. To Christians, the revolt was furt… The final battle of the war took place in Bethar, Bar-Kokhba’s headquarters, which housed both the Sanhedrin (Jewish High Court) and the home of the Nasi (leader). From the little that can be gleaned, a general picture of Bar Kochba emerges of a charismatic, physically courageous, somewhat brutal, & at times tyrannical leader. Bar Kokhba fell in the fortified town of Betar. Dio recounts that, following the war, "Hadrian, in writing to the Senate, did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors, ‘If you and your children are in health, it is well; I and the legions are in health’" (69:14.3). Because the Great Revolt of 70 CE had resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem, the C… Keter Publishing House Ltd., Jerusalem, 1973. Due to the large number of Jewish rebels, instead of waging open war, Severus besieged Jewish fortresses and held back food until the Jews grew weak. After a fierce battle, every Jew in Bethar was killed. The Bar Kokhba revolt marked a time of high hopes followed by violent despair. The Romans demolished all 50 Jewish fortresses and 985 villages. Eliav , Y. , “ Hadrian’s Actions in the Jerusalem Temple Mount according to Cassius Dio and Xiphilini Manus ,” Jewish Studies Quarterly 4 ( 1997 ). Ancient History Encyclopedia, 30 Aug 2018. For the Jews, the revolt was the last in a series of historical disasters, and for the most part, they sought to escape its trauma through silence. He appointed Tinneius Rufus governor of Judea. The failure of the revolt is considered by many to be the start of the Jewish diaspora. Messianic claimants were universally distrusted, and Jews were, for the most part, actively discouraged from following them. Bar Kochba silver Shekel/tetradrachm. The Bar Kochba Revolt (132–136 CE) was the third and final war between the Jewish people and the Roman Empire. Hadrian quickly went back on his word, however, and requested that the site of the Temple be moved from its original location. It followed a long period of tension and violence, marked by the first Jewish uprising of 66-70 CE, which ended with the destruction of the Second Temple, and the Kitos War (115-117 CE). [...] That being the time when Barcochebas, the leader of the Jews, was crushed and Jerusalem was demolished to the very ground. During the revolt itself, the Jews gained enormous amounts of land, only to be pushed back and crushed in the final battle of Bethar. The rabbinical sources refer to him throughout as Shimon Ben-Cozba or Coziba, which is often turned into a play on the word cuzav, meaning 'fake' or 'falsehood,' indicating their view of Bar Kochba as a false messiah. The first one lasted from 63 to 73 CE, culminating in the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE and the exile of the Jews from Jerusalem. The rabbis even take credit for assassinating the tyrannical leader, though this story is almost certainly apocryphal. Some Rights Reserved (2009-2021) under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license unless otherwise noted. He started to build a temple to Jupiter in place of the Jewish Holy Temple. "The Bar-Kochba Revolt." Called the “Cave of Letters,” it contained a cache of documents that included several letters from Bar Kochba himself, which shed unprecedented light on his personality and style of rule. Unlike the revolt of 66 CE, the historical sources on the Bar Kochba Revolt are scanty at best. Rufus was a harsh ruler who took advantage of Jewish women. Our latest articles delivered to your inbox, once a week: Our mission is to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide. Indeed, it has been speculated that the legendary "lost legion," the Legio IX Hispana, was destroyed during the revolt, as it disappears from the historical records around this time. License. מרד בר כוכבא) against the Roman Empire was a second major rebellion by the Jew s of Iudaea Province (also spelled "Judaea") and the last of the Jewish-Roman Wars.. Simon bar Kokhba, the commander of the revolt, was acclaimed a Messiah (rather than The Messiah), a heroic figure who could restore Israel.. Cassius Dio states that the war broke out due to Emperor Hadrian’s (r. 117-138 CE) decision to reconstitute Jerusalem as a pagan city with a temple to Jupiter on the site of the Second Temple. Bar Kokhba Revolt Coin inscribed with the word "Jerusalem" and a picture of a date palm. The war quickly intensified, however, until "the whole earth, one might almost say, was being stirred up over the matter" (Dio, 69:12.1). The revolt was ultimately unsuccessful, and Jerusalem paid a heavy toll for the rebellion. THE BAR KOKHBA REVOLT 79 evolved, corresponding to a large extent to the size of the army in a province.13 Britain was one of the two most important military commands in the Empire, with only Syria to rival it. 'Bar Kochba' is clearly an epithet, as it means "son of a star" in Aramaic, which appears to have been a messianic appellation. The Jews’ expectations rose as they made organizational and financial preparations to rebuild the temple. The debacle of the first revolt against Rome was followed by a period of relative calm. Answer: The Bar Kokhba revolt was a series of battles from AD 132 to 135 waged against the Roman Empire by Jews led by Simeon bar Kosba, who made messianic claims and who was renamed Bar Kokhba (“Son of the Star”) by an influential rabbi. While they are often clearly legendary and unreliable in nature, they do paint a general picture of the Jewish experience of the war and its aftermath. In the 1960s CE, a cave in the Judean desert was found that likely once housed refugees from the revolt. This rebellion later became known as the Bar-Kokhba revolt. In another passage, Rufus taunts Rabbi Akiva, deriding the Jews as "slaves" (T.B., Bava Batra 10a). Jerusalem was turned into a pagan city called Aelia Capitolina and the Jews were forbidden to live there. Eusebius, by contrast, seems to imply that this was a result of the war rather than a cause, although this is somewhat ambiguous. Bar Kochba silver Zuz/Denarius, … One story relates that Hadrian was able to build a wall of corpses several miles long. During his tour of the Eastern Empire in 131, the Roman emperor Hadrian decided upon a policy of Hellenization to integrate the Jews … Ben Sasson, Editor. However, there is little to indicate that he was unusually tyrannical by the standards of the time. However, the Jewish sources are not particularly positive either. This act antagonized the Jewish population, who revolted under the leadership of Simon bar Kokhba. The Jews then satisfied themselves with preparing secretly in case a rebellion would later become necessary. Hardly anyone in the company of the Emperor could have … The Bar Kokhba Revolt is still commemorated by Jews around the world on the holiday of Lag Ba’Omer, which has been reinterpreted by Zionists from a more religious observance to a secular celebration of Jewish resilience. Hadrian then dispatched his best generals, most notably Julius Severus. Bar-Kokhba had unlimited authority over his army and was concerned with even the most minor details. This appears to strongly indicate that, while it was by no means a consensus opinion, there was a strong and widespread belief that Bar Kochba was the promised messiah. It also appears that the Roman governor of Judea, Quintus Tineius Rufus, was a particularly hated and tyrannical official, arousing Jewish ire against him and Roman rule in general. The Talmud describes him as "the wicked" and states that he personally "plowed the Sanctuary," i.e. Peter Schaefer (Tuebingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003), 151-170. We have also been recommended for educational use by the following publications: Ancient History Encyclopedia Foundation is a non-profit organization registered in Canada. When in A.D. The Bar Kochba Revolt was a Jewish rebellion, led by Simon bar Kochba, against the Roman Empire that ultimately failed. In all likelihood, then, the revolt was not only a political or military event but also a strongly religious one, powered by the intense passions of messianic belief in the coming redemption of Israel. The revolt established a three-year-long independent Jewish state in which Bar Kokhba ruled as Nasi. (Mishnah Taanit 4:6). Documents discovered in the modern era Rabbi Akiva. His state was conquered by the Romans in 135 following a two-and-a-half-year war. In its initial stages, the revolt was surprisingly successful and may have resulted in the destruction of an entire Roman legion. Almost nothing is known about him, and he does not even appear in Dio’s comments on the war, though he may have done in the now-lost original. Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem. Simon bar Kokhba (Hebrew: שמעון בר כוכבא ‎) (died CE 135) was the Jewish leader of what is known as the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE, establishing an independent Jewish state which he ruled for three years as Nasi ("Prince"). “The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View.” The Journal of Roman Studies 89 (1999): 76–89. These were discovered in the “Cave of Letters” by Bedouin in the 1950s.The letters describe a guerrilla war against the Romans, with Jewish rebels utilising a network of caves and tunnels for military purposes. Thank you! The Bar Kochba revolt was named after Simon ben Kosevah, who was given the surname Bar Kochba (“Son of the Star”) by Rabbi Akiva. In many ways, the Bar Kochba Revolt differed markedly from its predecessors. By that time, there were 12 army legions from Egypt, Britain, Syria and other areas in Judea. Internationalen Limeskongresses 1986 in Carnuntum I (1990), 163–75 Google Scholar. A History of the Jewish People. He saw the Bar Kokhba revolt as the failure of his panhellenic ideal. In one story, he is portrayed as kicking an elderly rabbi to death for a perceived infraction. The Jews prepared to rebel until Rabbi Joshua ben Hananiah calmed them. This may also be indicated by the fact that, in one of the unearthed letters, Bar Kochba is described as nasi yisrael or "prince of Israel," indicating that the leader had or claimed to have restored the Jewish kingship, which was considered an essential accomplishment for any messianic claimant. (Koby Harati/City of David/Israel Antiquities Authority) Rebel propaganda . that the problems came to the surface. Hadrian's last years were marred by chronic illness. Hadrian hated “foreign” religions and forbade the Jews to perform circumcisions. The first conflict, known as the Jewish War or the First Revolt, was fought from A.D. 66 to 70; the second conflict, known as the Bar Kokhba War, raged from A.D. 132 to 135. In particular, they contrasted Bar Kochba’s status as a failed messiah with what they believed to be Jesus’ genuine claim. (Dio, 69:14.1-2), Jerusalem was completely destroyed and the Jewish nation was massacred in large groups at a time, with the result that they were even expelled from the borders of Judaea. The story of Bar-Kokhba was a legend in Jewish history - some actually believed he wasn't a real person. They seized towns and fortified them with walls and subterranean passages. Severus adopted a slow but extremely brutal strategy, steadily crushing the rebels by destroying the infrastructure and indeed much of the Jewish population of Judea. To the Romans, the revolt was best forgotten but was sometimes cited as an example of a particularly bloody and brutal confrontation with an intractable enemy. It seems clear, however, that the war was also very costly for the Romans. Get email notification for articles from Elon Gilad Follow. When it was spoken of, it was usually to degrade Bar Kochba as a false messiah and lament the extremism that led to the doomed revolts against Rome. Bar Kokhba Revolt coinage were coins issued by the Judaean rebel state, headed by Simon Bar Kokhba, during the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire of 132-135 CE. Eusebiusof Caesar… The primary non-Jewish sources are an epitome of Cassius Dio’s Roman History and a handful of lines by the ecclesiastical historian Eusebius, the bishop of Caesarea. Download our mobile app for on-the-go access to the Jewish Virtual Library, Holy Temple, Shimon Bar-Kokhba, Rabbi Akiva, © 1998 - 2021 American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. Bar-Kokhba was an imperious dictator who was in charge of both the army and the economy during the Jewish revolt against Rome. He made anti-religious decrees forbidding Torah study, Sabbath observance, circumcision, Jewish courts, meeting in synagogues and other ritual practices. This revolt began as small, spontaneous clashes between Jews and Roman forces. The main conflicts took place in Judea, the Shephela, the mountains and the Judean desert, though fighting also spread to Northern Israel. Hamodia notes the rebels reused Roman coins ‘with stripped or damaged faces’ and this was possibly out of defiance of the Imperial authorities. The Romans suffered heavy casualties as well and Hadrian did not send his usual message to the Senate that “I and my army are well.”. Under the strong leadership of Shimon Bar-Kokhba, the Jews captured approximately 50 strongholds in Judea and 985 undefended towns and villages, including Jerusalem. The Jews minted coins with slogans such as “The freedom of Israel” written in Hebrew. On some of his coins and in his letters, he calls himself 'Prince' (Nasi), a word that had very strong messianic connotations (cf. Perhaps the most famous reference to Bar Kochba in the rabbinic literature is one in which the venerated Rabbi Akiva says to his colleagues of Ben-Cosiba, hu malcha mashicha, "he is the king messiah," and references the biblical phrase "a star will come forth from Jacob." Jewish law and rituals were banned for some time, and many Jewish religious leaders were martyred, including Rabbi Akiva, who had believed so fervently in Bar Kochba as the messiah. The leader under whom the Jews united in their final war against the Romans remains one of the most important and enigmatic figures in Jewish history. Much of what we know concerning the Bar Kokhba Revolt comes from a cache of letters written by Bar Kokhba and his followers. The holiday Lag B’Omer, originally related to the Kabbalah, was remade as a celebration of Bar Kochba and his revolt. They were permitted to enter only on the 9th of Av to mourn their losses in the revolt. 39 Birley, Hadrian, 268. In the Bar Kochba Letters, discovered in the Judean Desert in the 1960s CE, he refers to himself as Shimon Ben-Cosiba. When Hadrian first became the Roman emperor in 118 C.E., he was sympathetic to the Jews. Books Ancient History Encyclopedia. He proclaimed Rome’s tolerance of their strange (to Rome) religion of worshipping just one God, allowed them to return to their beloved Jerusalem, and even permitted them to rebuild the Temple. The Jewish Encyclopedia. His state was conquered by the Romans in 135 following a two-year war. ---- “Hadrian, the Bar Kokhba Revolt, and the Epigraphic Transmission,” in The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Second Jewish Revolt against Rome, ed. (4:6.4). For the most part, however, he is reviled as a false messiah who brought disaster on his people. The first believers in Jesus were recognized as Jews. , “ The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View,” Journal of Roman Studies 89 (1999). While the messianic idea survived in Judaism, it became much more tightly controlled, concealed in mystical and exegetical tradition. History Until 1880: Israel Pocket Library. Jason Aronson Inc., New Jersey, 1989. I 30 Hadrian journeyed to Egypt through Judaea, the latter province seemed altogether peaceful and calm. Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/The_Bar-Kochba_Revolt/. (2018, August 30). So what we have here is an inscription dated to just before Judea ceased to exist as a province under that name. was a key period, the 2nd Jewish revolt against Rome under Bar Kochba. The war had no chronicler such as Josephus Flavius, at least none whose work has survived. The Jews of Cyrene (in North Africa) were said to have massacred their neighbors. In today’s world, with the contention between the ancient narrative of disaster and modern narrative of heroism, Bar Kochba remains what perhaps he always was – a fascinating and unknowable enigma. Excerpted from Lawrence H. Schiffman, From Text to Tradition, Ktav Publishing House, Hoboken, NJ, 1991. H.H. Most tellingly, the rabbis linked the fall of Beitar to the worst disasters to befall the Jewish people. According to the second-century Roman historian Lucius Cassius Dio, the construction of the city, with a temple to the god Jupiter in the center, was itself the spark that ignited the rebellion: The Jewish extremists could not tolerate the fact that a pagan Roman city was being built on the ruins of Jerusalem.
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